Whether History Is An Art Or A Science Philosophy Essay

Whether History Is An Art Or A Science Philosophy Essay In answering the question of whether history is an art or a science, the very nature of the subject is at stake. Interpretations of what discipline history belongs to change over time, leading to a continuing re-evaluation of the subject, beginning in the 19th century. The end result is a debate that is controversial, never fading away in the absence of a finite conclusion. The first argument that emerged was historicism, which began this debate. This was quickly followed by the contrasting beliefs of positivism and idealism. Having looked at some theories which argue either art or science, it is imperative to look at the current status of the debate today. The best answer includes elements from both sides of the argument as an answer that tries to reach a resolution in favour of either side of the argument will almost immediately be disproved. What is evident from this is there is no clear answer to the question, no conclusion will please everybody. Therefore there is a continuing n eed to give this question plenty of attention to try to solve it. Defining what is art, and what is science is important, before discussing the number of theories that have emerged. In the Oxford English Dictionary, art is defined as the expression or application of human creative skill and imagination, typically in a visual form such as a painting or sculpture, producing works to be appreciated primarily for their beauty and emotional power  [1]  . Some of what was said is relevant, especially the part that relates to creativity and imagination, a point relevant to idealism. The third definition given is however much more relevant; art is subjects of study concerned with human creativity and social life, such as languages, literature and history (as contrasted with scientific or technical subjects)  [2]  The definition outlines what an art is in the context of the academic world, inferring that art cannot be linked to science. This is shown in the parentheses at the end of the definition, seeming to justify why the historical debate has co ntinued over time; it believes that art is unable to co-exist with science and other technical subjects. These definitions are recent in comparison to the one given in the 1890s by Croce. He states art is neither a means of giving and sensuous pleasure, nor a representation of natural fact but the intuitive vision of individuality  [3]  . Croce begins his definition by outlining what art isnt, before explaining what it is in his opinion, the individual, specifically their intuition. What these definitions show is limited agreement on what an art is. It is a broad term, for which there are many meanings, which over time has changed. The dictionary definition is more recent than Croces, and it shows in the differences of opinion they have. Croce argues the individuals importance, whereas the dictionary argues about creativity, something which today we have taken as to be the exact meaning. The original meaning of science differs to what we believe it to be today, similar to how the definitions of art differ from what Croce thought. Formerly, science meant knowledge, or learning or any branch of it  [4]  . It is an incredibly broad statement, from which it is possible to conclude that most things are science, since almost everything involves learning knowledge. The Oxford English dictionary defines science as the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment  [5]  . From this, it can be inferred that when history is defined as science, they believe that history covers everything, the physical and natural world. Unlike art, there are no further definitions included on science, so it is much simpler to define. It is perhaps this simplicity that leads to history being viewed as a science. One further point relates to definitions in languages b eside English. Carr believes that definitions in other languages hinder the English interpretation of what history is; in every other European language, the equivalent word to science includes history without hesitation  [6]  . He believes that the definition of science is broader than what English makes it out to be, if other languages include science, then that is something that should be looked at in English. Because of this, some historians especially those from Europe assume that what the definition says is what history is. Equally, this debate has been limited to English speaking countries for some time, so perhaps Carr has a point and that English is what is wrong; include history in the definition and it will become accepted. Historicism was the philosophy that ignited the debate over whether history is science or art, at the start of the 19th century. Before this theory emerged, history was viewed as a branch of literature  [7]  , so there was a close link between the two. Historicism is the beginning of a shift away from literature, with the introduction of scientific methods. Popper defines historicism as an approach to the social sciences, which assumes that historical prediction is their principal aim  [8]  . The definition clearly shows the acknowledgement that science was becoming increasingly important to the study of history. Scientific method is apparent from the assertion of laws, which help achieve the aims, set out in the first definition, which are attainable by discovering the rhythms or the patterns, the laws or the trends that underlie the evolution of history  [9]  . Whilst these definitions come from Popper, a critic of historicism they explain what historicism is, showing h ow it moves away from previous beliefs of literature, and the shift towards science, which began this debate. One debate from the middle of the 19th century was the idea of positivism, which was quickly opposed by idealism. Positivism is a philosophy of knowledge, which uses the secrets of the natural world to help understanding of science and knowledge. Collingwood has described it as a philosophy in the service of natural science  [10]  . It is clear that positivism supports ideas linked to science in history, given its closeness to the definition of science outlined above. Positivism is highly dependent on the use of facts, which influence the study of the past. In terms of its method, it is close to a scientific investigation, critical of everything. Tosh comments facts are verified by applying critical methods to primary sources  [11]  , highlighting the thoroughness that is similar to scientific technique, if facts are verified in their context. This obsession with facts led Comte, one of its founders to believe historians would in due course uncover the laws of historical deve lopment  [12]  . The very belief that there are laws in history is confirmation of the positivists belief that history was a science, and if they believe that laws would work in the same way that laws in science worked, then history would be changed forever. In some ways, there is similarity between this idea and historicism, which believes in the existence of laws in history. Positivism continues the discussion. However, this idea is in contrast to Idealism, which rejected the entire principle on which their argument was based. Idealists argue history must be carefully distinguished from natural events because the identity between enquirer and his/her subject matter opens the way to a fuller understanding  [13]  . It dismisses the idea of positivism on the basis of its link to natural sciences. The key beliefs of idealism include empathy and intuition, emotions that the historian themselves can bring to study. Tosh comments, the reality of past events must instead be apprehended by an imaginative identification with the people of the past  [14]  . Methods in idealism are more about the individual historian, how they feel, how they make judgements based on the available evidence and furthermore, how they engage with the past. The basis of idealism is the opposite of positivism, it does not look at scientific method, and rather it believes more in imagination and things that shape inte rpretations. In that respect, it meets the definition that Croce set out at the end of the 19th century, being concerned with the individual and their response. In the present day, this debate continues to have relevance to historians and philosophers alike. The main cause of this is the imperative need to know. History is based around facts, therefore there needs to be a matter of fact judgement that says what discipline history belongs to. Until this happens, the issue will be highly relevant to all in the historical profession. A new theory has emerged in recent decades; Postmodernism. It values the priorization of language over experience  [15]  suggesting art and its associated ideas are today, much more important than any scientific ideas from the past. Southgate argues the incompatibility of postmodernist thinking with history. She describes it as a notoriously elusive concept, one which she feels is seen as an alien and hostile force, which she believes historians fear  [16]  . A working historian, Keith Thomas, reveals his methods are in line with has been construed to be art. He believes that his work is a literary construc tion, shaped by his moral values and intellectual assumptions  [17]  . He raises the contrast of lumpers and splitters, believing himself to be a lumper, as his work contains a broad-brush impression of beliefs and behaviours over a long period of time  [18]  . It is apparent he prefers to cover a wide time period rather analysing a fragment of that, probably because of the amount of research he does and collects, which makes it difficult to be selective with the facts. In conclusion, so much attention has been given to this question of what discipline history belongs to, because it matters hugely to historians. This is obvious from the scale of the debate that has occurred from the mid 19th century, as theories are challenged and counter-challenged. What is evident from all of this is the absence of a single solution to the problem, nobody is able to say History is science or History is art with confidence. In the absence of this, historians are left to discuss the idea, and are still unable to agree. This is because the subject matter is highly delicate to the historical profession, concluding that history is science or art will upset a large number of people who argue against that conclusion. Therefore perhaps the best outcome would be to say that history is neither singularly art nor science, rather is a fusion of the two disciplines. History needs to be interpreted therefore opinion on subjects matters, however there is also a need for close an alysis of source material, to critically look at sources. Good methods of studying need to be encouraged, and if they are in style of a scientific investigation that is no bad thing, seeing as scientists are thorough in their working methods. Similarly, empathy and intuition should also be spoken of as good qualities to have in a historian, the ability to empathise with the past and use ones own initiative are vitally important. Arguments collapse because historians do not look at them critically enough, and therefore have no evidence to back up their opinions. This debate is a dynamic subject, as been shown theories can develop almost overnight; surely the next idea is just around the corner. In this argument, facts are few and far between, and that is the reason for debate, the need for intuition. With no finite concluding statement, the question of whether history is art or science will continue for some time yet.

The Four Contexts of Motivation

Malcolm Knowles’ research in adult motivational learning produced four â€Å"distinct contexts†; Practical, Personal, Experiential, and Idealistic. The Practical context is motivated by a direct desired benefit result received from the learning such as a specific employment position, for financial wisdom and gain, or to apply the learning towards greater competency and confidence in making life decisions in situations anywhere from family to work, or even building that dream house that may have previously thought to be unattainable.The Personal context involves motivation directed by self fulfillment goals to overall better oneself and therein the quality of life. An adult student may for example want to learn in this context to increase self worth. Experiential learning differs from the other contexts in that one draws from real-life and past experiences motivated by a desire for renewal by consolidating with more current and forward ideas with the goal of improving an d refreshing their experience.The final Idealistic context motivation attracts those who just desire to continuously learn for the sake of the ongoing discovery of knowledge and new ideas throughout their lifespan. Learning wine tasting may be a venture for this type of learner. My learning motivation is Experiential. Professionally I have experienced a long career in the Human Resources field and held BA degree positions despite the fact that I did not have one. I do have my PHR but have learned mostly in a hands-on context. I have experienced both successful and unsuccessful situations during my career.I started my college education years ago and have procrastinated about returning for many years. I finally came to the realization that I need that degree and everything it offers in order to become more competent and confident in my business decisions. The unsuccessful situations I have experienced were due to my lack of a solid educational background. When I lacked the educational background to perform some of the tasks I was assigned I became panicked, stressed and found it necessary to be reactive.My motto during those times became ‘‘fake it until you make it! †. That attitude eventually caught up with me and forced me to face what I was missing. It took my losing a couple of positions to overcome the denial I was in. I know that I need this degree to enhance my performance and definitely for organizational development. I am know on a serious mission to complete this goal and believe attending Ashford University will give me the competency, knowledge and confidence I need to be successful resulting in a much happier and less stressful lifestyle.

Professional Abilities Essay

There are several organizations for each professional for example: teachers, social workers, accountants and business owners just to name a few. Then there are sororities and fraternities which consist of all of these professionals in one melting pot. The professional organization which I will describe in the paper is the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). As an employee in a Child Care Facility being apart of this organization can help improve my career if I choose to become the director in a few months. The following paragraph describes the history of the organization and what it has done for the early childhood program. As a mother of 5 with 4 attending school in the public school system this organization is in the public eye and moving forward with efforts to improve the early childhood system and help teachers, parents and congress to understand how important our children’s education should be to us. I can join this organization and help to change laws that can have an impact for not only my children but also grandchildren, nieces, nephews and the children that attend my Childcare facility my eyes could be open to new information, meeting people from all aspects of life at the national meetings and even go to Washington DC to help influence them to increase the funding, or make changes to existing policies regarding early childhood education. NAEYC’s mission is to serve and act on behalf of the needs, rights and well-being of all young children with primary focus on the provision of educational and developmental services and resources. National Association for the Education of Young Children has become the nation’s premier organization for early childhood professionals—setting research-based standards and providing resources to improve early childhood program quality, enhance the professional development and working conditions of program staff, and to help families learn about and understand the need for high quality early childhood education. Through position statements, work with other organizations, and its national voluntary accreditation system, NAEYC has been the leader in promoting excellence in early childhood education for all young children from birth through age 8. NAEYC’s roots extend to the 1920s when professional researchers and educators began organizing nursery schools for young children. Concerned about the quality of the proliferating programs, Patty Smith Hill identified a multidisciplinary group of 25 individuals, among them Arnold Gesell, Lois Meek (Stolz), and Abigail Eliot, to consider the need for a new association. A public conference was held in Washington, DC in 1926. By 1929, the group was organized as the National Association for Nursery Education (NANE) and had published its first book—Minimum Essentials for Nursery Education. In 1964, NANE was reorganized as the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). Also that year, the federal Head Start program was launched, focusing public attention on preschool education. In the early 1980s, concern about the quality of early childhood services available to the burgeoning numbers of families seeking child care and preschool programs for their young children led NAEYC to begin planning a national voluntary accreditation system for early childhood programs. NAEYC’s work in developing position statements and setting standards for different aspects of early childhood education continued throughout the 1990s. The National Institute for Early Childhood Professional Development focuses attention on improving the quality of preparation and ongoing professional development for teachers of young children by providing a place to learn from researchers about new developments and evaluations of pedagogy, curriculum, assessment, and teacher education. By its 75th anniversary in 2001, the association was engaged in a project to reinvent its accreditation system (scheduled to be fully implemented in 2006). Funding provided by a variety of contributors has been instrumental to the success of this effort. In addition, a comprehensive restructuring of its affiliate groups (most of which successfully re-affiliated in 2004) had also been launched. Interest Forums were established as a membership benefit in 2001 to encourage communities of learning on issues related to the NAEYC mission. Funding provided by the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation enabled NAEYC to establish the Supporting Teachers, Strengthening Families project to prevent child abuse and promote children’s healthy social development by helping teachers better communicate with families on difficult issues. The Association also adopted standards for professional preparation associate degree programs in early childhood education and launched plans to develop an accreditation system for these institutions. This effort has been generously supported by a number of contributors. The results of earlier efforts to build the Association’s policy presence are clearly visible in 2004. Affiliates and members receive training, technical assistance and resources to help them improve the capacity of their efforts to promote good public policies and investments in affordable, high quality early childhood education programs. NAEYC is recognized as a leading voice in Congress and in state capitols on what is needed to help improve early childhood programs and services for all young children and their families, ranging from child care and Head Start, to early elementary grade reading programs and appropriate assessment. Early childhood educators look to NAEYC for journals, books, and other resources that combine a solid research base and information and features that make them highly accessible and useful for practitioners, teacher educators, and policy makers. NAEYC Conferences continue to be the meetings that just can’t be missed, serving a critical convening function for the early childhood profession and providing a valuable professional development opportunity. Approaching its 80th anniversary, NAEYC is proud of its traditions, but also looks to the future. The Association is committed to becoming an ever more high performing inclusive organization that invites all individuals, families, communities and organizations to work together to improve the lives of all young children. They offer an Associate Degree Accreditation Program too many Universities that have programs in Early Childhood to make sure they are preparing their students for their career. They also offer Early Childhood professionals resources to improve their practice through training and professional development. After reading all the above information we should all be apart of this type of organization that cares greatly for the education system that our child (ren) participate in on a daily basis.

Iroquois Culture Essay - 854 Words

Iroquois Culture In order to fully understand and appreciate a culture different from one’s own, one must first have a grasp on ethnocentrism and how it can change thoughts and viewpoints. Ethnocentrism is a term used when someone is judging a culture’s ethics or way of life based upon his or her own belief structure or cultural values. Granted, being ethnocentric is not necessarily something to be ashamed of; everyone does it as a part of human nature. What one must realize, however, is that it can change one’s viewpoint to the point where another culture’s practices may seem barbaric. Ethnocentrism cannot be avoided. One simply must be aware that it happens and reflect upon it when it does occur. A few other problem areas†¦show more content†¦The Iroquois culture and the corresponding timeline can be crudely divided into two periods: life before contact with European settlers, and life after contact. The term â€Å"crudely† is used because blame for events that occur is not to be placed on the settlers. This division is also made because life for the Iroquois changed drastically after European contact. Iroquois nations found themselves competing for the goods the settlers offered. The settlers also brought with them diseases that the Iroquois had never been exposed to. Consequently, many nations suffered enormous losses simply because their bodies did not have immunity to these new diseases. One could say the Iroquois were enlightened by this new interaction with the settlers, but at what cost? In some Iroquois villages, nearly half the population was lost to disease. Much of what the settlers had to offer the Iroquois were merely luxuries. They had survived for centuries without them. The Iroquois were never a particularly peaceful culture from the settler’s standpoint. 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