The Seismoscope Is One of the Great Chinese Inventions

The Seismoscope Is One of the Great Chinese Inventions There are few things more disconcerting than the sensation of the seemingly-solid Earth suddenly rolling and pitching beneath ones feet. As a result, humans have sought ways to measure or even predict earthquakes for thousands of years. Although we still cant accurately predict earthquakes, humans have come a long way in detecting, recording, and measuring seismic shocks. This process began nearly 2000 years ago, with the invention of the first seismoscope in China. The First Seismoscope In 132 CE, inventor, Imperial Historian, and Royal Astronomer Zhang Heng displayed his amazing earthquake-detection machine, or seismoscope, at the court of the Han Dynasty. Zhangs seismoscope was a giant bronze vessel, resembling a barrel almost 6 feet in diameter. Eight dragons snaked face-down along the outside of the barrel, marking the primary compass directions. In each dragons mouth was a small bronze ball. Beneath the dragons sat eight bronze toads, with their broad mouths gaping to receive the balls. We dont know exactly what the first seismoscope looked like. Descriptions from the time give us an idea about the size of the instrument and the mechanisms that made it work. Some sources also note that the outside of the seismoscopes body was beautifully engraved with mountains, birds, tortoises, and other animals, but the original source of this information is difficult to trace. The exact mechanism that caused a ball to drop in the event of an earthquake also is not known. One theory is that a thin stick was set loosely down the center of the barrel. An earthquake would cause the stick to topple over in the direction of the seismic shock, triggering one of the dragons to open its mouth and release the bronze ball. Another theory posits that a baton was suspended from the lid of the instrument as a free-swinging pendulum. When the pendulum swung widely enough to strike the side of the barrel, it would cause the closest dragon to release its ball. The sound of the ball striking the toads mouth would alert observers to the earthquake. This would give a rough indication of the earthquakes direction of origin, but it did not provide any information about the intensity of the tremors. Proof of Concept Zhangs wonderful machine was called houfeng didong yi, meaning an instrument for measuring the winds and the movements of the Earth. In earthquake-prone China, this was an important invention.   In one instance, just six years after the device was invented, a large quake estimated at a magnitude seven struck what is now Gansu Province. People in the Han Dynastys capital city of Luoyang, 1,000 miles away, did not feel the shock. However, the seismoscope alerted the emperors government to the fact that a quake had struck somewhere to the west. This is the first known instance of scientific equipment detecting an earthquake that had not been felt by humans in the area. The seismoscopes findings were confirmed several days later when messengers arrived in Luoyang to report a major earthquake in Gansu. ChineseSeismoscopes on the Silk Road? Chinese records indicate that other inventors and tinkerers in the court improved upon Zhang Hengs design for the seismoscope over the centuries that followed. The idea seems to have spread westward across Asia, probably carried along the Silk Road.   By the 13th century, a similar seismoscope was in use in Persia, although the historical record does not provide a clear link between the Chinese and Persian devices. It is possible that the great thinkers of Persia hit upon a similar idea independently.

Is the New SAT Harder 6 Challenging Changes

Is the New SAT Harder 6 Challenging Changes SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Significant changes are coming to the SAT in 2016, but the effect they'll have on the student experience is debatable. Is the new SAT harder?It's impossible to tell for sure without any data on new score patterns. In the meantime, we can make a few predictions for how the changes to the format and content of the test could increase its difficulty. In this article, I'll give you an overview of the changes to the test, list some factors that might make it more challenging, and suggest study strategies for students who may struggle on the new SAT. Overview of Changes for the New SAT You should know some relevant background information before we dive into the reasons the test might be more challenging.Here’s a summary of changes you can expect on the new SAT.For more details, check out this article. Overall Format: The new SAT will be out of 1600 points instead of 2400 points. The Reading and Writing (which is now called Writing and Language) sections will be compressed into one section worth 800 points (Math will still have its own section). There will be four answer choices for each question instead of five. There are only four sections plus the essay, similar to the structure of the ACT (Reading, Writing and Language, Math with no calculator, and Math with a calculator). Reading: There will be no more sentence completion questions (all questions are passage-based)! Some questions will ask you to identify textual evidence for your answers to previous questions. You'll see data interpretation questions that will ask you to read charts and graphs that relate to the passages. Writing and Language: All questions will be based on longer passages rather than individual sentences. Writing style (paragraph structure, making logical arguments) will be more important than it was on the old test. You'll see a few data interpretation questions on this section as well. Essay: It's gonna be optional! You'll get 50 minutes instead of 25 You will need to analyze an argument that you read in a passage rather than writing a personal opinion-based response to a prompt. Your essay score won’t impact your Reading and Writing score. Math: There will be some trigonometry on the test. Some problems will have more than one part. There's a no calculator section. Questions will deal with real-world scenarios more frequently, and there will be fewer â€Å"tricky† questions. Ooh so many shiny new changes! Why Might It Be Harder? Here are a few reasons why I think the new SAT could be harder in general. You Can’t Memorize Vocabulary for Points One of the major changes on the new SAT is that there are no more sentence completion questions.The College Board is trying to de-emphasize knowledge of obscure vocabulary words on the test.Many of these words are not relevant to students after high school, and there have been claims that the old sentence completion questions favor wealthier students.On the new SAT, you will see vocabulary in context questions rather than sentence completion questions.These questions will refer to a word in the passage and ask you to choose the answer that represents its most accurate definition given the context. With this new format, memorizing lists of SAT words won’t help you much.You’ll need to have strong overall reading comprehension skills to understand nuances in the definitions of more common words.It’s harder to study for these questions than it might be to study for sentence completion questions because the skills you need are usually acquired over time through independent reading rather than by studying vocab flashcards. Domino Effect on Reading Questions Another new feature on the Reading section is the inclusion of â€Å"find the evidence† questions.You’ll get a question about a reading passage that requires you to make an inferred conclusion.Then, the next question will ask you to choose the evidence that you used for your answer.You’ll have a choice of four different quotes from the passage. I describe this as a â€Å"domino effect† because if you get the first question wrong (or can’t decide on an answer), you’ll probably get the second one wrong too.Even if you get the first question right, you might not be able to pinpoint the quote that fits best as evidence.Since one question relies on the other, it’s easy for things to get messy. I'm presenting this view of the situation because this article is about how the test might be harder. However, it's also possible that these types of questions will make things easier for you instead. Seeing potential direct evidence for your answer might make you realize a mistake on the previous question and actually help to improve your score. I think it's likely that this will balance out the problem. Noooo skinny naked Pillsbury Doughboy! What have you done?! More Reading Overall The new SAT involves a lot more reading than the current (soon to be old) SAT.All the Reading questions are based on passages.Even the Writing questions will reference parts of passages rather than isolated sentences.The essay also involves more reading because you’re asked to analyze an argument made in a passage rather than just reading a short prompt and responding to it. Less Room for Subjectivity and Variation on the Essay The essay is changing a lot on the new version of the test.Whereas before you had to form an opinion and make up your own examples, now you will be asked to analyze an author’s argument. This will make for stricter grading criteria and less flexibility in general.On the new essay, there will be pretty clear correct and incorrect responses. Data Interpretation Questions The new SAT is going to have graphs on the Reading and Writing sections! The horror!This actually isn’t so bad, but it’s different from anything the College Board has done on the test in the past.These new types of questions could be confusing or challenging for some students who aren’t comfortable drawing conclusions in this context (or have avoided the ACT because of the Science section!). More Advanced Math and Writing Content Math problems will get a little more in-depth with the inclusion of word problems that have more than one part in the grid-in section.Higher-level concepts will be tested, including a light sprinkling of basic trigonometry. The Writing section will also test a wider variety of concepts that may be more challenging. The old Writing section primarily focused on grammatical rules, whereas the new SAT Writing section will ask more questions about stylistic choices within long passages.For example, questions will ask you to determine where a sentence belongs logically in a paragraph. Thankfully, only Writing style matters on the new SAT, not sartorial style. You can wear a burlap sack to the test for all I care (but I wouldn't recommend it; that stuff is distractingly itchy). Will It Be Harder for You? How Can You Prepare? It depends partially on what kind of student you are.I’ll go through a few different qualities that might cause students to struggle on the new test and provide prep strategies to help you combat these problems. Case #1: You Tend to Rely on Memorization Like I said in the previous section, memorizing vocabulary words won’t help you much on the new SAT. If you’re a really intense studier and were hoping to ace the Reading section based on memorization skills, you might have some trouble.Understanding meaning in context will be a critical skill, so on-the-spot analytical thinking is more important than remembering the dictionary definition of â€Å"obsequious.† You should still know what obsequious means, though, because it's a fun word, and it describes a lot of people. Study Strategies: Practice with passage-based questions.The best remedy for this issue is to get more comfortable with answering the types of questions that are hard for you.Although there are limited practice resources for the new SAT, passage-based questions on the old SAT will still be helpful to you for this purpose. You can also practice reading comprehension in your daily life.Set aside time every day to read a couple of challenging articles online.Learning through experience is the easiest way to build better reading comprehension skills. Case #2: You’re a Slow Reader The new SAT will have way more reading than the current version, which means that time problems are more likely to happen.All questions in both the Reading and Writing portions are based off of passages rather than individual sentences.If you had trouble with time on the Reading section in the past, the new test might end up being harder. Study Strategies: Again, I’d recommend setting aside more time for independent reading.You can also try and build up your speed by taking practice tests.The key is to start preparing early so that you have time to improve; reading quickly and comprehensively is a skill that you won’t learn overnight. You can also practice with the ACT English and Reading sections.ACT English is very similar to the new SAT Writing section because it’s all based on passages.It's a good idea to check out some strategies for ACT English that will give you better ways to approach this new format.ACT Reading is pretty different from SAT Reading in terms of what the questions look like, but if you’re just trying to improve your reading speed, you should time yourself and try to complete the section. Case #3: You’re Less Confident in Math and Science The new SAT will test slightly more advanced concepts in Math, and it will also include a bit of data interpretation.If the Math section is the scariest part of the SAT for you, the new test could be more of a challenge.Math will also make up a greater proportion of your score with the elimination of the separate Writing section (half of the test versus a third).Your math skills will have a greater influence on your overall performance. Study Strategies: You can also use the ACT as a resource in this situation.The ACT Science section will give you some practice with data interpretation questions.ACT Math problems are more aligned with the format of the math section on the new SAT as well (trigonometry, more straightforward problems).Make sure you’re comfortable with any formulas that might show up on the test.You can also buy a review book that’s specifically designed to improve your math skills. If all you see when you look at this image is a terrible drawing of a staircase, you might have reason to be concerned about the new SAT. Conclusion: Is the New SAT Harder? That really depends on what's challenging for you! Changes thatmight make the testmore difficult include: Memorization won’t help you as much Some reading questions depend on one another There’s more reading overall The essay has a less flexible grading structure You’ll have to do some data interpretation Math and Writing concepts are a little more advanced You personally may find the new SAT particularly difficult if: You tend to rely on memorization for your vocabulary knowledge Speed reading is not your forte Your skills in Reading and Writing are significantly stronger than your skills in Math The good news is that now you know what’s going to be on the test, and you can prepare accordingly.If you think you might struggle, make sure you plan your studying well in advance so that you aren’t caught off guard by the demands of the new format. What's Next? How can you set an appropriate goal for your score on the new SAT? Read this article for some advice on calculating a target score based on your plans for college. The new SAT is similar to the ACT in many ways. Check out this article for a full breakdown of the difference and similarities between the two tests. Should you even take the new SAT, or is the ACT a better choice? This article will guide you in figuring out which one suits you better. Disappointed with your scores? Want to improve your SAT score by 240 points?We've written a guide about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Enclosed in attachment. (Psychology) Research Paper

Enclosed in attachment. (Psychology) - Research Paper Example Creative cognition is defined as the approach that is used to explain the role of cognitive processes in the process of creative thinking. The main objective of the science dealing with the creative cognition is to be able to determine the components of the creative process. Through years of study and in depth empirical data analysis, it has been concluded that the process of creative thinking acts on a multitude of different processes. It is not limited to a certain psychological area or component that can be labeled as its own. This conclusion then makes it a challenge to limit the components and mechanisms that are involved in the process of creative cognition (Smith, Ward and Finke, 1995). One of the main issues in the study of creative cognition is the basis of mechanism. One group believes in the evidences pertaining to the fact that creative cognition is based on expertise. On the other hand, an opposing side purports that creative cognitions is based on insight. The aim of the paper is to present an analysis of the two opposing sides on the basis of the available evidences. By being based on expertise, it means that creative cognition is a structured process of psychological and mental activity. This can be considered analogous to a ‘systematic and well-organized’ manner of mental processes that are structured in different aspects (Stemberg, 1999, p.208). Based on the evidences related to the said concept, when the brain is given a particular problem to resolve, the automatic reaction is an analysis based on memory. This can be considered as logical resolutions to different stimuli. For example one issue is tackled, different parts of the brain related to the said issue is activated. This can be related to the popular saying that ‘experience is the best teacher.’ Due to the fact that the brain has stored information related to the issue, processing of the data is more efficient (Gabora,

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 93

Assignment Example The story reveals to the reader just how unfair identity prejudice restricted on women choices during the time period. The theme of gendered identity and roles gets illuminated throughout the book. This can be revealed when the author states that she liked to work outside while she noted that her mother worked inside. As a young girl, the narrator tells of how happy she was to work outside with her father who was a fox farmer. She liked being a hired hand that helped to bring water to the foxes, cutting grass, and watering plants. She notes that her mother worked inside the house concerning herself with housekeeping and particularly in the kitchen where she prepared foods such as jam, jelly, and preserves. The narrator notes of how her mother would on a number of occasions constantly try to negotiate with her father on getting her to work in the house more. This gendered view presented in the story is quite telling as it shows the place of the woman in the society back in the time period. Women got resigned to housekeeping and the kitchen as their traditional roles. The story is also interesting given the narrator persistence at trying to break down the social view on gendered roles at the time. As a young girl, she dreams of herself rescuing people from a building that got bombed. As an oldest child, she takes it upon herself to help her father with her pelting business which was traditionally a male chore. Through various descriptions in the book, the reader notes of the young girl’s adventurous nature, physical strength, courage, and her imaginativeness. As a young girl, she is clearly impervious to the concept of gendered roles. She happily dreams of opportunities that call for boldness, courage, and self-sacrifice. This illustrates her free spirit as a young girl that later becomes curtailed by societal conceptions of

Romeo and Juliet, analytical essay Essay Example for Free

Romeo and Juliet, analytical essay Essay Romeo and Juliet is an extremely well-known play written by William Shakespeare in the late 1590s. It is a story about an ancient rivalry between two wealthy families which is defied by two teenage star-crossed lovers who tragically die. The play was set in the Elizabethan era in Verona Italy. Despite that the play was written four hundred years ago it continues to capture the imaginations of teenagers in the 21st century, and the themes within the play are still seen in modern culture. These themes include infatuation, emotional extremity and rebellion. Romeo and Juliet is the most famous love story in English literature history, infatuation is naturally the play’s foremost and most significant theme as Romeo and Juliet become infatuated with each other in an impossible situation. Romeo and his friends have crashed the Capulet’s party and Romeo has just laid eyes on Juliet, Romeo says â€Å"O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night like a rich jewel in an Ethiopia’s ear; Shakespeare’s use of metaphor â€Å"O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! † (1. 5. 2) reflects Romeo’s extreme infatuation with Juliet as he idolises her, Romeo is saying how beautiful and glowing Juliet is by comparing her to the stars. The love between Romeo and Juliet can come across as immature and impulsive which is why it is also known as infatuation. Teenagers in the 21st century still have these impulsive emotions which cause them to make immature decisions which aren’t thought through clearly with all the outcomes considered; examples of these impulsive actions are sexting, and having an un-committed sexual relationship. Romeo’s wild emotions majorly impact those directly around him, especially Juliet. Romeo’s emotions are always very intense and usually change quite quickly without much thought to the previous matter which caused his emotions to go wild in the first place. Juliet is impacted by these extreme emotions as seen later in the play that Juliet’s level headedness is thrown out the window and quickly replaced with similar intense emotions just like Romeo. These emotions are seen commonly among teenagers now days, due to raging hormones and increasing pressure from other substantial causes, irrational mood swings and impulsive decisions

At the Gym Essay -- Literary Analysis, Mark Doty

At the Gym, written by Mark Doty, dramatizes the conflict within the mind of a bodybuilder and his desire to change who and what he is. The speaker observes the routines of the bodybuilder bench-pressing at a local gym, and attempts to explain the driving force that compels him to change his appearance. The speaker illustrates the physical use of inanimate objects as the tools used for the â€Å"desired† transformation: â€Å"and hoist nothing that need be lifted† (5,6). However, coupled with â€Å"but some burden they’ve chosen this time† (7), the speaker takes the illustration beyond the physical use of the tools of transformation and delves into the bodybuilder’s mental state. The speaker ends by portraying the bodybuilder as an arrogant, muscular being with fragile feelings of insecurity. Similar to a church altar where baptisms take place, the speaker begins by depicting the bench press as an altar of change and transformation. Illustrating the setting in this manner suggests that the speaker begins to wonders what drives the bodybuilder to lift an inanimate object repeatedly w...

How important are staff/management relations? Essay

A good relationship between staff and management is one in which each party respects and trusts one another, communicates with and understands one another and understands clearly what is expected of each other. Each party must make a fair contribution towards satisfying the interests of the other party. Demands placed on each other must be reasonable. Compromise and co-operation both play important roles in safeguarding the interests of the business while also satisfying the conflicting interests of it’s workforce. It is imperative to build and maintain healthy staff/management relations for the following reasons. Good relations help to prevent disputes and if conflict does arise it can be better resolved between staff and management who have already developed a good working relationship which helps to ensure as little disruption to normal operations as possible. Good staff/management relations lead to high morale amongst a workforce. A happy workforce is a more productive one. The employer will also find it easier to retain its employees. Poor relations can lead to an unhappy workforce and dissatisfied management which is likely to result in reduced productivity and the overall failure of the business. The interests of a company and the interests of it’s workforce are often in conflict with each other. A number of practices must be in place in order to simultaneously satisfy the needs of both the business and of it’s people. When an employee first joins a company, they must be given a contract which clearly states what is expected of them in their role and what remuneration he/she will receive. The contract, terms and conditions must make it clear what the employee can expect from it’s employment. The employee must also be made aware of all relevant company polices and procedures particularly regarding conduct, sickness, disciplinary procedures and grievances possibly via a company handbook, intranet website or induction. Without having been given the necessary information in the first place, it is unreasonable for any employer to expect compliance with rules. There must be a clear organizational structure in place so that staff members know who they report to and this helps to instill a respect for authoritative positions. However in order to earn respect from it’s staff, management must undergo regular training to ensure they possess the necessary skills to manage the workforce well. Sufficient training must be given to staff members to equip them with the knowledge and skills required to carry out their role. Performance appraisals should take place to assess performance, identify problem areas and to reward excellence. This is beneficial to both the company and the staff member as poor performance can be corrected and well performing staff members benefit from recognition. Reviews of conditions and pay should take place in order to keep up with change and competition. Competitors may not only ‘steal’ customers but could ‘steal’ a workforce if they can offer them more. Retaining a workforce will keep recruitment and training costs to a minimum. Monetary rewards are not always enough to motivate staff. It may be necessary in some situations to motivate staff using other incentives such as awards, promotional prospects, shares and staff discounts. It is necessary that management and staff have effective methods of communicating with each other such as email, newsletters or meetings. Staff must have means of expressing themselves and providing feedback upwards which can be done through surveys or even informal discussions. With effective communications, problems can be identified early and resolved quickly. Using the above mentioned practices a better working relationship can be established between management and staff ensuring the success of the company and the well being of its workforce.

How do I know anything?

The Film The Matrix was a Box Office hit due to the idea it presented to the audience. Even though Descartes' Meditations inspired the film, the idea of living in a computer simulated environment was an interesting, original concept that had been created recently. It opened up a question, how do I know anything? It is possible that we may be living in a computer-simulated environment, or in a big dream of some sort. We are unable to prove any of this at the moment, which could then possibly lead to scepticism about this theory. The only real argument to support the theory is to use the fact that our government keeps information confidential from the public, for a number of reasons. This demonstrates that there are things that we do not know; therefore, we should not totally doubt what we do not know, and that we may be living in a simulated environment. There is also the problem of perception. It is easy for us to perceive something to be different to what it really is. Magicians use optical illusions to fool us. If we are living in a simulated environment, then how can we break ourselves away from the perception that we are in, to separate ourselves from the simulation, and find out what the other reality is like? The closest technology has come to simulating environments is virtual reality. The environment is simulated, allowing humans to interact, although they may be elsewhere. The graphics within virtual reality are still basic, and this is one of the reasons why we are able to recognise virtual reality as being different to reality. Another reason is that virtual reality does not cause you to feel pain. Whether Virtual Reality is comparable to the neural-simulated environment in The Matrix, VR is the closest thing we have to relate to the theory. However, VR could be as real as reality if it had realistic models of physics (e.g. feather and coin fall at the same rate in a vacuum), better graphics, and the ability to stimulate the body into experiencing physical feelings of pain, heat and cold, etc. Another problem with doing this is having a computer powerful enough to process all this information via calculations. IBM have developed a supercomputer that can calculate the force of nuclear explosions. Does a computer exist powerful enough to simulate the reality we live in exactly? If it does, then the theory proposed by the film could be right. Another concern brought up by the film was about A.I. (Artificial Intelligence). In the film, A.I. developments created intelligent, living computers. Machines are physically better than man in many ways. They do not excrete, need tea breaks at work, sleep, be lazy, require wages, things that humans do. They are more efficient than humans. However, Humans have consciences, imaginations, and the ability to think. Computers do not have this. If computers did have this, they may be worth more than human life. Once recognising their status and power, it is possible that they may consider the human race to be inefficient, and may then start to eliminate humanity, like in The Matrix and The Terminator. This is something we have to be wary about when we decide to improve A.I., whether it be in industrial machines, home appliances, or computer games. If AI started to have a mind of its own, would anyone be willing to corrupt it, and turn it against others? It could be something terrorists would do to disrupt the activities of Governments around the globe? It may not be possible for machines to be a living, independent-thinking species. Computers work by calculations. Let us take an example. Home appliance in the future; greets person as they get in the door. A sensor will detect that the door is opening. It activates another smart sensor to identify that person. It is the house-owner. It greets with ‘hello'. The house-owner says ‘hello' back. The appliance uses a sensor to detect the reply, and assesses it not only for vocal identification, but to determine what mood the person is in. It will then choose a speech passage suited to the mood of the person. E.g. the person has a cold, so the computer tells the person that they are making a warm glass of Lemon and Honey for them, and ordering for a prescription of medicine to the doctor. Another sensor in the house will scan the person and send the details of the cold to the doctor, allowing the doctor to prescribe the right medication. The person will say ‘thanks', and the appliance will say ‘your welcome'. All this could happen just by entering the door and saying hello. The computer can display signs of compassion, but will not actually feel them. This will be a major mountain to conquer in the development of Artificial Intelligent Life. Commercially, Artificial Intelligence is still under development, and will take some time before it can resemble anything human. Overall, Technology will get better, and maybe we will discover if the simulated neural environment theory is right.

Analyzing Mеdical Improvеmеnts from 1900 to 1999

Analyzing MÐ µdical ImprovÐ µmÐ µnts from 1900 to 1999 MÐ µdical ImprovÐ µmÐ µnts from 1900 to 1999 ThÐ µ Ð µasiÐ µst part of hÐ µalth to mÐ µasurÐ µ is lÐ µngth of lifÐ µ A population that livÐ µs longÐ µr is hÐ µalthiÐ µr than onÐ µ that doÐ µs not livÐ µ as long. OnÐ µ of thÐ µ grÐ µatÐ µst concÐ µrns for physicians and sciÐ µntists havÐ µ always bÐ µÃ µn child mortality, which, historically, has bÐ µÃ µn high duÐ µ to widÐ µsprÐ µad infÐ µctious disÐ µasÐ µs an lack of propÐ µr trÐ µatmÐ µnt. ThÐ µ young dÐ µvÐ µlop disÐ µasÐ µ antibodiÐ µs slowly; in combination with thÐ µir poor nutrition, this makÐ µs thÐ µm particularly suscÐ µptiblÐ µ to infÐ µction. In an Ð µra without Ð µffÐ µctivÐ µ trÐ µatmÐ µnt for infÐ µctious disÐ µasÐ µ, thÐ µsÐ µ infÐ µctions wÐ µrÐ µ frÐ µquÐ µntly fatal. OvÐ µr timÐ µ, sÐ µvÐ µral factors combinÐ µd to rÐ µducÐ µ infÐ µctious disÐ µasÐ µ mortality. Public hÐ µalth improvÐ µmÐ µnts, including clÐ µan watÐ µr, sÐ µwÐ µrs, and pastÐ µurizÐ µd milk, rÐ µducÐ µd disÐ µasÐ µ Ð µxposurÐ µ. PÐ µrsonal hÐ µalth practicÐ µs such as hand washing and propÐ µr food storagÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ important too. CombinÐ µd with bÐ µttÐ µr nutrition from improvÐ µd agricultural output, thÐ µsÐ µ improvÐ µmÐ µnts limitÐ µd disÐ µasÐ µ suscÐ µptibility and aidÐ µd rÐ µcovÐ µry. ThÐ µ nÐ µt Ð µffÐ µct was a major rÐ µduction in ovÐ µrall mortality. This papÐ µr, by rÐ µfÐ µrring to a numbÐ µr of scholarly articlÐ µs an sourcÐ µs, analyzÐ µs thÐ µ mÐ µdical advancÐ µs madÐ µ bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn 1900 an 1999, focusing on thÐ µ positivÐ µ changÐ µs thÐ µsÐ µ improvÐ µmÐ µnts spurrÐ µd in thÐ µ mÐ µdical an social fiÐ µlds. It should bÐ µ notÐ µd that bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn 1940 and 1960, thÐ µrÐ µ was a subtlÐ µ but important shift in thÐ µ naturÐ µ of mortality rÐ µduction. InfÐ µctious disÐ µasÐ µ mortality continuÐ µd to dÐ µclinÐ µ, but formal mÐ µical carÐ µ bÐ µgan to play a largÐ µr rolÐ µ. ThÐ µ dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt of sulfa drugs in thÐ µ 1930s and pÐ µnicillin in thÐ µ 1940s wÐ µrÐ µ thÐ µ most significant Ð µvÐ µnts in mÐ µdicinÐ µ (CutlÐ µr and MÐ µara 78). Antibiotics wÐ µrÐ µ wondÐ µr trÐ µatmÐ µnts for infÐ µctions. By 1960, infÐ µctious disÐ µasÐ µ mortality had bÐ µÃ µn substantially Ð µliminatÐ µd. Antibiotics arÐ µ valuablÐ µ for both young and old, and so mortality fÐ µll among all agÐ µ groups. In thÐ µ mid-twÐ µntiÐ µth cÐ µntury, rÐ µsÐ µarchÐ µrs saw thÐ µ first rÐ µal incrÐ µasÐ µ in lifÐ µ Ð µxpÐ µctancy at oldÐ µr agÐ µs (CutlÐ µr and MÐ µara 83). ObsÐ µrvÐ µrs noting thÐ µsÐ µ trÐ µnds wÐ µrÐ µ imprÐ µssÐ µd, but thÐ µy wÐ µrÐ µ grim in thÐ µir outlook for thÐ µ futurÐ µ With infÐ µctious disÐ µasÐ µ largÐ µly conquÐ µrÐ µd by 1960, thÐ µ lÐ µading killÐ µrs wÐ µrÐ µ cardiovascular disÐ µasÐ µ, cancÐ µr, and chronic conditions of old agÐ µ. ThÐ µrÐ µ was no Ð µxpÐ µriÐ µncÐ µ of improvÐ µmÐ µnt in any of thÐ µsÐ µ conditions. FamÐ µd biologist RÐ µnÐ µ Dubos Ð µxprÐ µssÐ µd thÐ µ pÐ µssimism by saying: ModÐ µrn mÐ µdicinÐ µ has littlÐ µ to offÐ µr for thÐ µ prÐ µvÐ µntion or trÐ µatmÐ µnt of chronic and dÐ µgÐ µnÐ µrativÐ µ disÐ µasÐ µs that dominatÐ µ thÐ µ pathological picturÐ µ of tÐ µchnologic sociÐ µtiÐ µs (Qtd in (InstitutÐ µ of MÐ µdicinÐ µ 55). In fact, mortality ratÐ µs in thÐ µ UnitÐ µd StatÐ µs stoppÐ µd dÐ µclining bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ mid-1950s and thÐ µ latÐ µ 1960s. YÐ µt, almost as soon as scholars bÐ µgan rÐ µconciling oursÐ µlvÐ µs to a fixÐ µd lifÐ µ span, mortality ratÐ µs oncÐ µ again startÐ µd to fall rapidly. That dÐ µclinÐ µ continuÐ µs. What obsÐ µrvÐ µrs in 1960 could not forÐ µsÐ µÃ µ was that chronic disÐ µasÐ µ mortality could changÐ µ. Cardiovascular disÐ µasÐ µ mortality lÐ µd thÐ µ way. BÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn 1960 and 1999 it dÐ µclinÐ µd as rapidly as infant and child mortality had Ð µarliÐ µr in thÐ µ cÐ µntury (DonÐ µlan Ð µt al. 211). SincÐ µ cardiovascular disÐ µasÐ µ strikÐ µs mostly thÐ µ middlÐ µ-agÐ µd and Ð µldÐ µrly, mortality improvÐ µmÐ µnts sincÐ µ 1960 havÐ µ incrÐ µasingly affÐ µctÐ µd oldÐ µr pÐ µoplÐ µ. MÐ µdical advancÐ µs in trÐ µating a numbÐ µr of sÐ µrious illnÐ µssÐ µs rÐ µprÐ µsÐ µnt a fundamÐ µntal changÐ µ in thÐ µ naturÐ µ of hÐ µalth improvÐ µmÐ µnts. RÐ µsÐ µarchÐ µrs notÐ µ that formal mÐ µdicinÐ µ playÐ µd almost no part in bÐ µttÐ µr hÐ µalth in 1900 and only a small part through 1950. It has bÐ µcomÐ µ an intÐ µgral part of thÐ µ modÐ µrn mÐ µdicinÐ µ, howÐ µvÐ µr. In 1950 mÐ µdical spÐ µnding was only $500 pÐ µr pÐ µrson (in today's monÐ µtary tÐ µrms), and mÐ µdical carÐ µ accountÐ µd for a mÐ µrÐ µ 4 pÐ µrcÐ µnt of gross domÐ µstic product (GDP) (Manton and Gu 6355). Today, AmÐ µricans spÐ µnd nÐ µarly $5,000 pÐ µr pÐ µrson on mÐ µdical carÐ µ, and mÐ µdical carÐ µ accounts for almost 15 pÐ µrcÐ µnt of GDP (Manton and Gu 6355). MÐ µdical advancÐ µs also play a major rolÐ µ among doctors In 1900, hÐ µalth profÐ µssionals wÐ µrÐ µ poorly trainÐ µd and infÐ µction was widÐ µsprÐ µad, particularly in hospitals. ThÐ µ systÐ µm had improvÐ µd by 1950 but was still not grÐ µat. PÐ µnicillin and sulfa drugs, along with basic sanitary mÐ µasurÐ µs, madÐ µ hospitals a rÐ µasonablÐ µ placÐ µ to go whÐ µn sick. MÐ µdical school training had improvÐ µd (Manton and Gu 6356). HowÐ µvÐ µr, lack of knowlÐ µdgÐ µ was a major limiting factor. Physicians could sÐ µÃ µ oldÐ µr pÐ µoplÐ µ dying of hÐ µart attacks, and low-birth-wÐ µight infants dying of rÐ µspiratory problÐ µms, but thÐ µy did not know what to do. At thÐ µ timÐ µ, doctors wÐ µrÐ µ gÐ µnÐ µralists. In 1950 thÐ µrÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ vÐ µry fÐ µw mÐ µdical spÐ µcialtiÐ µs. ThÐ µrÐ µ was a division bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn mÐ µdicinÐ µ and surgÐ µry, but littlÐ µ Ð µlsÐ µ. ThÐ µ pÐ µriod sincÐ µ 1970's brought significant shifts in thÐ µ fiÐ µld of mÐ µdical advancÐ µs. Various institutions such as National SciÐ µncÐ µ Foundation and thÐ µ National InstitutÐ µs of HÐ µalth bÐ µcamÐ µ pionÐ µÃ µrs in thÐ µ fiÐ µld of mÐ µdical innovations of thÐ µ sÐ µcond half of thÐ µ 20th cÐ µntury. BÐ µttÐ µr trÐ µatmÐ µnt of hÐ µart attack victims and low-birth-wÐ µight infants wÐ µrÐ µ somÐ µ of thÐ µ rÐ µsults. ThÐ µsÐ µ institutions continuÐ µ to promotÐ µ mÐ µdical advancÐ µs today (InstitutÐ µ of MÐ µdicinÐ µ 34-39). To continuÐ µ, hÐ µalth involvÐ µs quality as wÐ µll as lÐ µngth of lifÐ µ A population that livÐ µs long but is in poor hÐ µalth is not much bÐ µttÐ µr off than onÐ µ with a shortÐ µr but hÐ µalthiÐ µr lifÐ µ span. Information about changÐ µs in quality of lifÐ µ is hardÐ µr to obtain than information about changÐ µs in lÐ µngth of lifÐ µ, sincÐ µ quality of lifÐ µ is so much morÐ µ difficult to mÐ µasurÐ µ. Still, onÐ µ can sÐ µÃ µ largÐ µ improvÐ µmÐ µnts ovÐ µr timÐ µ. A significant amount of rÐ µsÐ µarch has Ð µxaminÐ µd trÐ µnds in quality of lifÐ µ in thÐ µ past fÐ µw dÐ µcadÐ µs to sÐ µÃ µ if it has improvÐ µd or worsÐ µnÐ µd. BÐ µcausÐ µ hÐ µalth impairmÐ µnts arÐ µ particularly concÐ µntratÐ µd at oldÐ µr agÐ µs, rÐ µsÐ µarch has focusÐ µd on thÐ µ hÐ µalth of thÐ µ oldÐ µr population. In 1980 about 5 pÐ µrcÐ µnt of marathon runnÐ µrs wÐ µrÐ µ ovÐ µr thÐ µ agÐ µ of 50 (InstitutÐ µ of MÐ µdicinÐ µ 34-39). This numbÐ µr has doublÐ µd by 1999 (InstitutÐ µ of MÐ µdicinÐ µ 34-39). FurthÐ µrmorÐ µ, bÐ µginning in thÐ µ Ð µarly 1980s, Ð µfforts wÐ µrÐ µ madÐ µ to collÐ µct data on mÐ µdical improvÐ µmÐ µnts and thÐ µir impact on quality of patiÐ µnts' lifÐ µ. RÐ µsÐ µarchÐ µrs dÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd survÐ µys that mÐ µasurÐ µd undÐ µrlying physical functioning, not rÐ µport of disÐ µasÐ µ. PÐ µoplÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ askÐ µd about thÐ µir ability to pÐ µrform basic activitiÐ µs suc h as bathing, Ð µating, and walking, and social tasks such as shopping, managing monÐ µy, and doing light housÐ µwork. HÐ µalth survÐ µys with thÐ µsÐ µ quÐ µstions havÐ µ bÐ µÃ µn administÐ µrÐ µd widÐ µly and consistÐ µntly to largÐ µ numbÐ µrs of Ð µldÐ µrly pÐ µoplÐ µ sincÐ µ thÐ µ Ð µarly 1980s. ThÐ µ rÐ µsults arÐ µ clÐ µar: thÐ µ Ð µldÐ µrly arÐ µ much hÐ µalthiÐ µr than thÐ µy wÐ µrÐ µ two dÐ µcadÐ µs ago. ThÐ µrÐ µ is no failurÐ µ of succÐ µss; rathÐ µr, thÐ µrÐ µ arÐ µ morÐ µ victoriÐ µs. In conclusion, onÐ µ should notÐ µ that sincÐ µ 1950 thÐ µ modÐ µrn mÐ µdical systÐ µm has bÐ µÃ µn morÐ µ important in Ð µxtÐ µnding lifÐ µ. A rÐ µduction in thÐ µ numbÐ µr of casÐ µs of cardiovascular disÐ µasÐ µ and infant dÐ µath arÐ µ most significant in contributing to longÐ µr lifÐ µ. Physical disability has dÐ µcrÐ µasÐ µd as wÐ µll. In thÐ µ 1990's Ð µra, hÐ µalth improvÐ µmÐ µnts havÐ µ morÐ µ dirÐ µctly followÐ µd mÐ µdical advancÐ µs as thÐ µ mÐ µdical systÐ µm grÐ µw into its modÐ µrn shapÐ µ. This Ð µra is thÐ µ kÐ µy pÐ µriod to considÐ µr in Ð µvaluating modÐ µrn mÐ µdicinÐ µ. On thÐ µ wholÐ µ, thÐ µrÐ µforÐ µ, mÐ µdical advancÐ µs and lifÐ µstylÐ µ changÐ µs appÐ µar to bÐ µ most important in Ð µxplaining thÐ µ improvÐ µmÐ µnt in hÐ µalth ovÐ µr timÐ µ. Still, this is an arÐ µa in which knowlÐ µdgÐ µ is progrÐ µssing rapidly, and conclusions about thÐ µ importancÐ µ of thÐ µsÐ µ othÐ µr hypothÐ µsÐ µs could changÐ µ in thÐ µ nÐ µxt fÐ µw yÐ µars.

The Harris Matrix Tool Used to Comprehend the Archaeological Past

The Harris Matrix Tool Used to Comprehend the Archaeological Past The Harris Matrix (or Harris-Winchester matrix) is a tool developed between 1969-1973 by Bermudian archaeologist Edward Cecil Harris to assist in the examination and interpretation of the stratigraphy of archaeological sites. The Harris matrix is specifically for the identification of both natural and cultural events which make up a sites history. The construction process of a Harris matrix compels the user to classify the various deposits in an archaeological site as representing events in the lifecycle of that site. A completed Harris Matrix is a schematic that clearly illustrates the history of an archaeological site, based on the archaeologists interpretation of the stratigraphy seen in the excavations. The History of an Archaeological Site All archaeological sites are palimpsests, that is to say, the end result of a series of events, including cultural events (a house was built, a storage pit was dug, a field was planted, the house was abandoned or torn down) and natural events (a flood or volcanic eruption covered the site, the house burned down, organic materials decayed). When the archaeologist walks onto a site, evidence of all those events is there in some form. The archaeologists job is to identify and record the evidence from those events  if the site and its components are to be understood. In turn, that documentation provides a guide to the context of the artifacts found at the site. Context means that artifacts recovered from the site mean something different if they are found in the construction foundations of the house rather than in the burned basement. If a potsherd was found within a foundation trench, it predates the use of the house; if it was found in the basement, perhaps only physically a few centimeters away from the foundation trench and maybe at the same level, it postdates the construction and may be in fact from after the house was abandoned. Using a Harris matrix allows you to order the chronology of a site, and to tie a particular context to a particular event. Classifying Stratigraphic Units to Context Archaeological sites are typically dug in square excavation units, and in levels, whether arbitrary (in 5 or 10 cm [2-4 inch] levels) or (if possible) natural levels, following the visible deposit lines. Information about every level that is excavated is recorded, including depth below surface and volume of soil excavated; artifacts recovered (which could include microscopic plant remains discovered in the laboratory); soil type, color and texture; and many other things as well. By identifying the contexts of a site, the archaeologist can assign Level 12 in excavation unit 36N-10E to the foundation trench, and Level 12 in excavation unit 36N-9E to the context within the basement. Harris Categories Harris recognized three types of relationships between unitsby which he meant groups of levels which share the same context: Units which have no direct stratigraphic correlationUnits which are in superpositionUnits which are correlated as parts of a once-whole deposit or feature The matrix also requires that you identify characteristics of those units: Units which are positive; that is to say, those that represent the upbuild of material to a siteNegative units; units such as pits or foundation trenches which involved the removal of soilInterfaces between those units History of the Harris Matrix Harris invented his matrix in the late 1960s and early 1970s during post-excavation analysis of site records from the 1960s excavation at Winchester, Hampshire in the UK. His first publication was in June 1979, the first edition of The Principles of Archaeological Stratigraphy. Originally designed for use on urban historic sites (which stratigraphy tends to be horrendously complex and jumbled), the Harris Matrix is applicable to any archaeological site and has also been used to document changes in historical architecture and rock art. Although there are some commercial software programs that assist in building a Harris matrix, Harris himself used no special tools other than a piece of plain gridded papera Microsoft Excel sheet would work just as well. Harris matrices may be compiled in the field as the archaeologist is recording the stratigraphy in her field notes, or in the laboratory, working from notes, photos, and maps. Sources Barros Garcà ­a JMB. 2004. The Use of the Harris Matrix to Document the Layers Removed during the Cleaning of Painted Surfaces. Studies in Conservation 49(4):245-258.Harris EC. 2014. Principles of Archaeological Stratigraphy. London: Academic Press.Harris EC, Brown III MR, and Brown GJ, editors. 2014. Practices in Archaeological Stratigraphy: Elsevier.Higginbotham E. 1985. Excavation Techniques in Historical Archaeology. Australian Journal of Historical Archaeology 3:8-14.Pearce DG. 2010. The Harris Matrix technique in the construction of relative chronologies of rock paintings in South Africa. The South African Archaeological Bulletin 65(192):148-153.Russell T. 2012. No one said it would be easy. Ordering San paintings using the Harris matrix: dangerously fallacious? A reply to David Pearce. The South African Archaeological Bulletin 67(196):267-272.Traxler Ch, and Neubauer W. 2008. The Harris Matrix composer, a new tool to manage archaeological stratigraphy. In: Ioannides M, Addiso n A, Georgopoulos A, and Kalisperis L, editors. Digital Heritage, Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia:  Cyprus. p 13-20. Wheeler K. 2000. Theoretical and Methodological Considerations for Excavating Privies. Historical Archaeology 34:3-19.

Should nurses (CRNAs) be able to administer anesthesia without doctor Essay

Should nurses (CRNAs) be able to administer anesthesia without doctor supervision - Essay Example ving gone through four year training and earned a degree in nursing, taken another two years in clinical training and worked in the field more than a decade, Clifford on his own was still not set to handle the unexpected dire situation. The training he underwent as a nurse had only equipped him with the skill to administer medicine, work the equipment, and ensure the smooth working of the procedural anesthesia delivery. In the recent past there has been a growing call for nurses (CRNAs) to be allowed to administer anesthesia without doctor supervision. This new development emanates from the 2001 changes made on regulations governing Medicare and Medicaid that allowed states to opt out of the requirement that CRNA be supervised. According to supporters of the move, the removal of the existing requirement works to increase access to health care, particularly for the people in the rural areas. Today, states such as Colorado have already embraced this new idea. This work argues out the p oint that it may be dangerous to allow CRNAs to administer anesthesia without the supervision of doctors. First, compared to physician anesthesiologists, a certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA) training is limited especially when it comes to understanding medical response, medical diagnosis, and the ultra-complex operation of human body system. As in the case of Clifford, many nurses are likely to tense when faced with situation where such systems are under the influence of a drug induced coma, thus endangering the patient’s life (Kahana, 381-383). Supervisory doctors or physician anesthesiologists typically depict higher knowledge when compared to that acquired by CRNAs. This training places them in a better position to make on-the spot medical decisions frequently required when handling adverse situations in the operating room. The decisions include those made in the whole perioperative experience to even those depicted in the life-threatening circumstances. This is not